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According to the mantle plume theory, what causes hot spots? brainly

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Upwelling of abnormally hot rock within Globe's pall

A drapery plume is a proposed mechanism of convection within the Earth's mantle. Because the plumage head partially melts on reaching shallow depths, a plume is often invoked as the cause of volcanic hotspots, such as Hawaii or Iceland, and large igneous provinces such every bit the Deccan and Siberian Traps. Some such volcanic regions lie far from tectonic plate boundaries, while others correspond unusually big-book volcanism near plate boundaries.

Concepts [edit]

Mantle plumes were offset proposed past J. Tuzo Wilson in 1963[2] [3] and further developed by Due west. Jason Morgan in 1971 and 1972.[3] A mantle plume is posited to exist where super-heated textile forms (nucleates) at the core-mantle boundary and rises through the Earth'due south curtain. Rather than a continuous stream, plumes should be viewed as a series of hot bubbles of cloth.[4] Reaching the brittle upper World'south crust they form diapirs.[5] These diapirs are "hot spots" in the crust. In particular, the concept that drape plumes are fixed relative to one another, and anchored at the cadre-drapery purlieus, would provide a natural explanation for the time-progressive chains of older volcanoes seen extending out from some such hot spots, such as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount concatenation. However, paleomagnetic data show that drapery plumes can also be associated with Large Low Shear Velocity Provinces (LLSVPs)[6] and do move, relative to each other.[7]

Ii largely contained convective processes are proposed:

  • the broad convective menstruum associated with plate tectonics, driven primarily by the sinking of common cold plates of lithosphere back into the drape asthenosphere
  • the mantle plume, driven past estrus exchange across the core-mantle boundary carrying heat upward in a narrow, rising column, and postulated to be independent of plate motions.

The plume hypothesis was studied using laboratory experiments conducted in small fluid-filled tanks in the early on 1970s.[8] Thermal or compositional fluid-dynamical plumes produced in that way were presented as models for the much larger postulated mantle plumes. Based on these experiments, pall plumes are now postulated to comprise 2 parts: a long sparse conduit connecting the top of the plume to its base, and a bulbous head that expands in size as the plumage rises. The entire structure is considered to resemble a mushroom. The bulbous head of thermal plumes forms considering hot material moves upward through the conduit faster than the plume itself rises through its environment. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, experiments with thermal models showed that as the bulbous head expands it may entrain some of the adjacent mantle into the head.

The sizes and occurrence of mushroom mantle plumes can exist predicted hands by transient instability theory developed by Tan and Thorpe.[9] [10] The theory predicts mushroom shaped pall plumes with heads of near 2000 km diameter that have a critical time (fourth dimension from onset of heating of the lower mantle to formation of a plume) of about 830 Myr for a core mantle heat flux of 20 mW/mtwo, while the cycle time (the fourth dimension between plume formation events) is nearly ii Gyr.[11] The number of pall plumes is predicted to be virtually 17.

When a plume head encounters the base of the lithosphere, information technology is expected to flatten out against this barrier and to undergo widespread decompression melting to form large volumes of basalt magma. It may and then erupt onto the surface. Numerical modelling predicts that melting and eruption will take identify over several 1000000 years.[12] These eruptions accept been linked to overflowing basalts, although many of those erupt over much shorter time scales (less than 1 million years). Examples include the Deccan traps in India, the Siberian traps of Asia, the Karoo-Ferrar basalts/dolerites in South Africa and Antarctica, the Paraná and Etendeka traps in South America and Africa (formerly a single province separated past opening of the South Atlantic Ocean), and the Columbia River basalts of N America. Flood basalts in the oceans are known as oceanic plateaus, and include the Ontong Java plateau of the western Pacific Ocean and the Kerguelen Plateau of the Indian Ocean.

The narrow vertical pipe, or conduit, postulated to connect the plume caput to the core-curtain purlieus, is viewed equally providing a continuous supply of magma to a fixed location, often referred to as a "hotspot". Every bit the overlying tectonic plate (lithosphere) moves over this hotspot, the eruption of magma from the fixed conduit onto the surface is expected to form a chain of volcanoes that parallels plate movement.[thirteen] The Hawaiian Islands chain in the Pacific Sea is the blazon example. It has recently been discovered that the volcanic locus of this chain has non been fixed over time, and it thus joined the club of the many blazon examples that do not exhibit the key feature originally proposed.[14]

The eruption of continental flood basalts is often associated with continental rifting and breakup. This has led to the hypothesis that curtain plumes contribute to continental rifting and the germination of sea basins.

The current mantle plume theory is that material and energy from Earth's interior are exchanged with the surface chaff in two singled-out modes: the predominant, steady land plate tectonic government driven by upper curtain convection, and a punctuated, intermittently ascendant, mantle overturn government driven by feather convection.[v] This 2nd government, while often discontinuous, is periodically significant in mountain edifice[xv] and continental breakup.[sixteen]

Chemical science, heat flow and melting [edit]

Hydrodynamic simulation of a single "finger" of the Rayleigh–Taylor instability, a possible mechanism for feather germination.[17] In the 3rd and fourth frame in the sequence, the plume forms a "mushroom cap". Notation that the cadre is at the top of the diagram and the crust is at the bottom.

Earth cantankerous-section showing location of upper (iii) and lower (5) drape, D″-layer (6), and outer (7) and inner (9) cadre

The chemical and isotopic composition of basalts constitute at hotspots differs subtly from mid-ocean-ridge basalts.[xviii] These basalts, as well called bounding main isle basalts (OIBs), are analysed in their radiogenic and stable isotope compositions. In radiogenic isotope systems the originally subducted material creates diverging trends, termed curtain components.[nineteen] Identified mantle components are DMM (depleted mid-bounding main ridge basalt (MORB) mantle), HIMU (loftier U/Pb-ratio mantle), EM1 (enriched drapery 1), EM2 (enriched mantle 2) and FOZO (focus zone).[xx] [21] This geochemical signature arises from the mixing of about-surface materials such equally subducted slabs and continental sediments, in the mantle source. There are ii competing interpretations for this. In the context of mantle plumes, the nigh-surface material is postulated to take been transported down to the cadre-drapery purlieus by subducting slabs, and to take been transported back up to the surface by plumes. In the context of the Plate hypothesis, subducted textile is mostly re-circulated in the shallow drapery and tapped from there by volcanoes.

Stable isotopes like Fe are used to track processes that the uprising material experiences during melting.[22]

The processing of oceanic crust, lithosphere, and sediment through a subduction zone decouples the water-soluble trace elements (due east.g., K, Rb, Thursday) from the immobile trace elements (due east.g., Ti, Nb, Ta), concentrating the immobile elements in the oceanic slab (the water-soluble elements are added to the crust in island arc volcanoes). Seismic tomography shows that subducted oceanic slabs sink as far every bit the bottom of the mantle transition zone at 650 km depth. Subduction to greater depths is less certain, simply there is prove that they may sink to mid-lower-drape depths at almost 1,500  km depth.

The source of mantle plumes is postulated to exist the cadre-mantle purlieus at 3,000  km depth.[23] Because there is fiddling material send across the core-drape purlieus, heat transfer must occur past conduction, with adiabatic gradients above and below this boundary. The core-curtain boundary is a stiff thermal (temperature) discontinuity. The temperature of the core is approximately 1,000 degrees Celsius higher than that of the overlying drapery. Plumes are postulated to rise every bit the base of the mantle becomes hotter and more than buoyant.

Plumes are postulated to rise through the drapery and begin to partially melt on reaching shallow depths in the asthenosphere by decompression melting. This would create large volumes of magma. This melt rises to the surface and erupts to form "hot spots".

The lower mantle and the core [edit]

Calculated Earth'south temperature vs. depth. Dashed curve: Layered drape convection; Solid curve: Whole mantle convection.[24]

The well-nigh prominent thermal contrast known to exist in the deep (g km) pall is at the core-drape purlieus at 2900 km. Drapery plumes were originally postulated to rising from this layer because the "hot spots" that are causeless to be their surface expression were thought to exist stock-still relative to one another. This required that plumes were sourced from below the shallow asthenosphere that is idea to exist flowing chop-chop in response to motion of the overlying tectonic plates. In that location is no other known major thermal boundary layer in the deep Earth, and then the cadre-mantle purlieus was the only candidate.

The base of operations of the curtain is known every bit the D″ layer, a seismological subdivision of the Earth. It appears to be compositionally singled-out from the overlying mantle, and may contain partial melt.

Two very broad, large depression-shear-velocity provinces, exist in the lower drapery under Africa and nether the central Pacific. It is postulated that plumes rise from their surface or their edges.[25] Their depression seismic velocities were idea to suggest that they are relatively hot, although it has recently been shown that their low wave velocities are due to loftier density caused by chemic heterogeneity.[26] [27]

Bear witness for the theory [edit]

Some common and bones lines of evidence cited in support of the theory are linear volcanic chains, noble gases, geophysical anomalies, and geochemistry.

Linear volcanic chains [edit]

The historic period-progressive distribution of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount concatenation has been explained every bit a effect of a stock-still, deep-drape plume rising into the upper pall, partly melting, and causing a volcanic chain to form as the plate moves overhead relative to the stock-still feather source.[23] Other "hot spots" with time-progressive volcanic bondage backside them include Réunion, the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge, the Louisville Ridge, the Ninety East Ridge and Kerguelen, Tristan, and Yellowstone.

While there is evidence that the bondage listed in a higher place are time-progressive, it has been shown that they are not fixed relative to 1 some other. The most remarkable example of this is the Emperor concatenation, the older part of the Hawaii system, which was formed past migration of the hot spot in add-on to the plate move.[28] Another example is the Canary Islands in the northeast Atlantic Ocean.[29] [30]

Noble gas and other isotopes [edit]

Helium-3 is a primordial isotope that formed in the Big Bang. Very trivial is produced, and trivial has been added to the Earth by other processes since then.[31] Helium-4 includes a primordial component, but it is also produced by the natural radioactive decay of elements such as uranium and thorium. Over fourth dimension, helium in the upper atmosphere is lost into infinite. Thus, the Earth has become progressively depleted in helium, and 3He is not replaced every bit fourHe is. As a result, the ratio iiiHe/fourHe in the Earth has decreased over fourth dimension.

Unusually loftier 3He/4He have been observed in some, only non all, "hot spots". This is explained by plumes tapping a deep, primordial reservoir in the lower mantle, where the original, loftier threeHe/4He ratios have been preserved throughout geologic fourth dimension.[32]

Other elements, e.g. osmium, have been suggested to be tracers of fabric arising from nearly to the Earth's core, in basalts at oceanic islands. Yet, so far conclusive proof for this is lacking.[33]

Geophysical anomalies [edit]

Diagram showing a cross section though the Earth'south lithosphere (in yellow) with magma rising from the drape (in ruby). The crust may move relative to the plume, creating a track.

The plume hypothesis has been tested past looking for the geophysical anomalies predicted to exist associated with them. These include thermal, seismic, and meridian anomalies. Thermal anomalies are inherent in the term "hotspot". They can exist measured in numerous different ways, including surface rut flow, petrology, and seismology. Thermal anomalies produce anomalies in the speeds of seismic waves, only unfortunately then do limerick and partial melt. Every bit a consequence, wave speeds cannot be used simply and direct to measure out temperature, but more sophisticated approaches must be taken.

Seismic anomalies are identified by mapping variations in wave speed as seismic waves travel through Earth. A hot mantle plume is predicted to have lower seismic wave speeds compared with similar material at a lower temperature. Mantle material containing a trace of partial melt (e.g., equally a effect of it having a lower melting betoken), or being richer in Fe, too has a lower seismic wave speed and those effects are stronger than temperature. Thus, although unusually low wave speeds have been taken to indicate anomalously hot mantle beneath "hot spots", this interpretation is ambiguous.[34] The well-nigh ordinarily cited seismic wave-speed images that are used to wait for variations in regions where plumes take been proposed come up from seismic tomography. This method involves using a network of seismometers to construct 3-dimensional images of the variation in seismic wave speed throughout the mantle.[35]

Seismic waves generated by large earthquakes enable construction beneath the Earth's surface to be determined along the ray path. Seismic waves that have traveled a 1000 or more kilometers (besides called teleseismic waves) tin can exist used to prototype large regions of Earth's mantle. They also have limited resolution, nonetheless, and but structures at to the lowest degree several hundred kilometers in diameter tin exist detected.

Seismic tomography images accept been cited as evidence for a number of mantle plumes in Earth'southward pall.[36] There is, withal, vigorous on-going discussion regarding whether the structures imaged are reliably resolved, and whether they correspond to columns of hot, rise rock.[37]

The mantle feather hypothesis predicts that domal topographic uplifts will develop when plume heads impinge on the base of the lithosphere. An uplift of this kind occurred when the north Atlantic Ocean opened about 54 one thousand thousand years ago. Some scientists have linked this to a curtain plume postulated to have acquired the breakup of Eurasia and the opening of the n Atlantic, at present suggested to underlie Iceland. Current inquiry has shown that the fourth dimension-history of the uplift is probably much shorter than predicted, however. It is thus not clear how strongly this observation supports the drape plume hypothesis.

Geochemistry [edit]

Basalts establish at oceanic islands are geochemically distinct from mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB). Sea isle basalt (OIB) is more than diverse compositionally than MORB, and the swell majority of ocean islands are composed of alkali basalt enriched in sodium and potassium relative to MORB. Larger islands, such equally Hawaii or Iceland, are more often than not tholeiitic basalt, with alkali basalt limited to tardily stages of their evolution, just this tholeiitic basalt is chemically distinct from the tholeiitic basalt of mid-ocean ridges. OIB tends to be more enriched in magnesium, and both brine and tholeiitic OIB is enriched in trace incompatible elements, with the light rare world elements showing detail enrichment compared with heavier rare earth elements. Stable isotope ratios of the elements strontium, neodymium, hafnium, lead, and osmium prove wide variations relative to MORB, which is attributed to the mixing of at least three pall components: HIMU with a loftier proportion of radiogenic lead, produced by disuse of uranium and other heavy radioactive elements; EM1 with less enrichment of radiogenic atomic number 82; and EM2 with a loftier 87Sr/86Sr ratio. Helium in OIB shows a wider variation in the 3He/4He ratio than MORB, with some values approaching the primordial value.[38]

The composition of ocean isle basalts is attributed to the presence of singled-out mantle chemical reservoirs formed past subduction of oceanic chaff. These include reservoirs corresponding to HUIMU, EM1, and EM2. These reservoirs are thought to have different major element compositions, based on the correlation between major element compositions of OIB and their stable isotope ratios. Tholeiitic OIB is interpreted every bit a production of a college degree of partial melting in peculiarly hot plumes, while alkali OIB is interpreted as a product of a lower caste of partial melting in smaller, cooler plumes.[38]

Seismology [edit]

In 2015, based on information from 273 large earthquakes, researchers compiled a model based on full waveform tomography, requiring the equivalent of 3 million hours of supercomputer fourth dimension.[39] Due to computational limitations, high-frequency data still could not exist used, and seismic data remained unavailable from much of the seafloor.[39] Nonetheless, vertical plumes, 400 C hotter than the surrounding rock, were visualized under many hotspots, including the Pitcairn, Macdonald, Samoa, Tahiti, Marquesas, Galapagos, Cape verde, and Canary hotspots.[40] They extended nearly vertically from the core-mantle boundary (2900 km depth) to a possible layer of shearing and angle at k km.[39] They were detectable because they were 600–800 km wide, more than than three times the width expected from contemporary models.[39] Many of these plumes are in the large low-shear-velocity provinces nether Africa and the Pacific, while another hotspots such as Yellowstone were less clearly related to mantle features in the model.[41]

The unexpected size of the plumes leaves open up the possibility that they may conduct the bulk of the Globe's 44 terawatts of internal heat flow from the cadre to the surface, and ways that the lower pall convects less than expected, if at all. It is possible that at that place is a compositional departure between plumes and the surrounding mantle that slows them downward and broadens them.[39]

Suggested mantle plumage locations [edit]

An example of plume locations suggested past ane contempo group.[42] Effigy from Foulger (2010).[34]

Drape plumes have been suggested as the source for flood basalts.[43] [44] These extremely rapid, large scale eruptions of basaltic magmas accept periodically formed continental alluvion basalt provinces on state and oceanic plateaus in the ocean basins, such as the Deccan Traps,[45] the Siberian Traps[46] the Karoo-Ferrar inundation basalts of Gondwana,[47] and the largest known continental flood basalt, the Primal Atlantic magmatic province (CAMP).[48]

Many continental flood basalt events coincide with continental rifting.[49] This is consistent with a system that tends toward equilibrium: as affair rises in a pall plume, other material is drawn down into the drape, causing rifting.[49]

Alternative hypotheses [edit]

In parallel with the mantle plume model, ii alternative explanations for the observed phenomena have been considered: the plate hypothesis and the impact hypothesis.

The plate hypothesis [edit]

An illustration of competing models of crustal recycling and the fate of subducted slabs. The plume hypothesis invokes deep subduction (right), while the plate hypothesis focuses on shallow subduction (left).

Beginning in the early 2000s, dissatisfaction with the state of the evidence for mantle plumes and the proliferation of ad hoc hypotheses collection a number of geologists, led by Don 50. Anderson, Gillian Foulger, and Warren B. Hamilton, to propose a wide culling based on shallow processes in the upper mantle and to a higher place, with an emphasis on plate tectonics as the driving force of magmatism.[50]

The plate hypothesis suggests that "anomalous" volcanism results from lithospheric extension that permits melt to rise passively from the asthenosphere below. It is thus the conceptual inverse of the feather hypothesis considering the plate hypothesis attributes volcanism to shallow, well-nigh-surface processes associated with plate tectonics, rather than active processes arising at the cadre-mantle boundary.

Lithospheric extension is attributed to processes related to plate tectonics. These processes are well understood at mid-ocean ridges, where most of Earth's volcanism occurs. Information technology is less commonly recognised that the plates themselves deform internally, and can allow volcanism in those regions where the deformation is extensional. Well-known examples are the Basin and Range Province in the western USA, the Due east African Rift valley, and the Rhine Graben. Under this hypothesis, variable volumes of magma are attributed to variations in chemic composition (large volumes of volcanism corresponding to more easily molten mantle material) rather than to temperature differences.

While not denying the presence of deep drapery convection and upwelling in full general, the plate hypothesis holds that these processes practise not result in pall plumes, in the sense of columnar vertical features that span most of the World's mantle, transport large amounts of estrus, and contribute to surface volcanism.[34] : 277

Under the umbrella of the plate hypothesis, the following sub-processes, all of which can contribute to permitting surface volcanism, are recognised:[34]

  • Continental pause-upwards;
  • Fertility at mid-ocean ridges;
  • Enhanced volcanism at plate boundary junctions;
  • Pocket-size-scale sublithospheric convection;
  • Oceanic intraplate extension;
  • Slab fierce and suspension-off;
  • Shallow mantle convection;
  • Abrupt lateral changes in stress at structural discontinuities;
  • Continental intraplate extension;
  • Catastrophic lithospheric thinning;
  • Sublithospheric melt ponding and draining.

The bear upon hypothesis [edit]

In addition to these processes, bear on events such as ones that created the Addams crater on Venus and the Sudbury Igneous Circuitous in Canada are known to take caused melting and volcanism. In the affect hypothesis, information technology is proposed that some regions of hotspot volcanism tin be triggered by certain big-body oceanic impacts which are able to penetrate the thinner oceanic lithosphere, and flood basalt volcanism tin can be triggered past converging seismic energy focused at the antipodal point opposite major impact sites.[51] Touch on-induced volcanism has non been adequately studied and comprises a separate causal category of terrestrial volcanism with implications for the study of hotspots and plate tectonics.

Comparison of the hypotheses [edit]

In 1997 it became possible using seismic tomography to epitome submerging tectonic slabs penetrating from the surface all the fashion to the core-mantle boundary.[52]

For the Hawaii hotspot, long-flow seismic trunk moving ridge diffraction tomography provided show that a mantle feather is responsible, as had been proposed every bit early equally 1971.[53] For the Yellowstone hotspot, seismological prove began to converge from 2011 in back up of the plume model, as ended by James et al., "we favor a lower pall plume equally the origin for the Yellowstone hotspot."[54] [55] Data acquired through Earthscope, a programme collecting high-resolution seismic data throughout the contiguous United States has accelerated acceptance of a plume underlying Yellowstone.[56] [57]

Although there is thus strong evidence that at least these two deep drapery plumes rising from the core-mantle boundary, confirmation that other hypotheses tin can be dismissed may require similar tomographic evidence for other hot spots.

See also [edit]

  • Delamination (geology) – Loss of the portion of the lowermost lithosphere from the tectonic plate to which information technology was fastened
  • Epeirogenic motion – Upheavals or depressions of land exhibiting long wavelengths and little folding
  • Orogeny – The formation of mountain ranges
  • Verneshot – Hypothetical volcanic eruption event caused past the buildup of gas deep underneath a craton

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External links [edit]

  • Seismic-tomography paradigm of Yellowstone drape plumage
  • Large Igneous Provinces Commission
  • mantleplumes.org - mantle-feather skeptic website managed and maintained past Gillian R. Foulger

allenhiseadmose87.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_plume

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